Synchronous Manufacturing and Theory of Constraints

Synchronous Manufacturing and Theory of Constraints

According to Dr. Goldratt, synchronous manufacturing refers to the entire production process working together in harmony to achieve the goals of the firm. Synchronous manufacturing logic attempts to coordinate all resources so that they work together and are in harmony or are "synchronized." The goal is on total system performance, not on localized measures such as labor or machine utilization.

The “Five Focusing Steps of TOC”  are condensed below:

‡ 1. Identify the system constraint. (no improvements possible unless the constraint or the weakest link is found)

2. Decide how to exploit the system constraint. (Make the system as effective as possible).

3. Subordinate everything else to that decision. (Align every other part of the system to support the constraint even if this reduces the efficiency of the non-constraint resources).

‡    4. Elevate the system constraints. (If output is still inadequate, acquire more of this resource so itis no longer a constraint).

‡    5. If in the previous steps, the constraints have been broken, go back to step1; do not let inertia become the system constraint.

Production Scheduling Rules

His rules for production scheduling are listed as under:

-       Do not balance the capacity - balance the flow. The level of utilization of a non-bottleneck resource is determined not by its own potential but by some other constraint in the system.

-       Utilization and activation of a resource are not the same.

-       An hour lost at a bottleneck is an hour lost.

-       An hour saved at a non-bottleneck is a mirage.

-       Bottlenecks govern both throughput and inventory in the system.

-       The transfer batch may not and many times should not be equal to the process batch.

-       A process batch should be variable both along its route and in time.

-       Priorities can be set only by examining the system’s constraints. Lead time is a derivative of the schedule.

The above principles underlie the concept of synchronous manufacturing, which refers to the entire production process working in harmony to achieve the profit goal of the firm.

The primary goal of the firm is to make money. Firms have three measures of the firm's ability to make money: net profit, return on investment, and cash flow. Financial measurements work well at the higher level but need to be used with other measures of throughput, inventory and operating expenses. The goal of the firm from an operations standpoint is to increase throughput while simultaneously reducing inventory and reducing operating expenses. Productivity is all the actions that bring a company closer to its goals.

Performance Measurements

NetProfit - an absolute measurement in dollars
Return on Investment - a relative measure based on investment

Cash flow - a survival measurement.

Operational Metrics

Throughput - the rate at which money is generated by the system through sales. Throughput as specifically defined as goods sold. An inventory of finished goods is not throughput but inventory. Actual sales must occur. This definition prevents the system from continuing to produce under the illusion that goods might be sold. Such action simply increases cost, builds inventory and consumes cash.

Inventory - all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things it intends to sell. Inventory that is carried is (in any form - WIP or finished goods) is valued only at the cost of the materials it contains. Labor costs and machine hours are ignored.  Using just raw materials cost also avoids the problem of determining which costs are direct and which are indirect and their allocation.

Operating expenses - all the money that the system spends to turn inventory into throughput. Operating expenses include production costs (such as direct labor, indirect labor, inventory carrying costs, equipment depreciation and materials and supplies used in production) and administrative costs. The key difference is that there is no need to separate direct and indirect costs.

Unbalanced capacity is preferable to an attempt to match capacity with market demand. Capacity constrained resources can become bottlenecks if their utilization is not scheduled carefully. Because each step in a process sequence is a dependent event, the ability to do the next process is dependent on the preceding one. Statistical fluctuations are the normal variations about a mean or average. Rather than balancing capacities, the flow of product through the system should be balanced.
A bottleneck is any resource whose capacity is less than the demand placed upon it. It limits the throughput. Nonbottleneck resources have capacity greater than demand. A capacity-constrained resource (CCR) is one whose utilization must be scheduled carefully so it does not become a bottleneck operation.
Production cycle time is made up of setup time, process time, queue time, wait time, and idle time. Queue time is the greatest for parts waiting to go through a bottleneck. An hour saved at the bottleneck adds an extra hour to the entire production system but an hour saved at a nonbottleneck is a mirage and only adds an hour to its idle time.
Batch size determination is important in synchronous manufacturing. For bottleneck resources, larger batch sizes are desirable. For nonbottleneck resources, smaller process batch sizes are desirable and reduce work-in-process inventory.
MRP and JIT are often compared to synchronous manufacturing. MRP uses backward scheduling after being given a master production schedule while synchronous manufacturing uses forward scheduling because it focuses on the critical resources. JIT like synchronous manufacturing does an excellent job in reducing lead times and work in process but is limited to repetitive manufacturing and requires a stable production level.
The production system must work closely with the other functional areas to achieve the best operating system. Cost accounting, for example, is changing to support production performance measures. Marketing communicates and conducts activities in close harmony with production for better operations too. The firm should operate as a synchronized system with all parts in harmony and supporting each other. The key to competitive advantage through operations is for the firm to operate as a synchronized system, with all parts working in concert. Companies that do this well are well on their way to achieving the fundamental goal of the firm -- profitability.

Theories of Motivation

Theories of Motivation:

*Rational economic man - people are primarily motivated by economic needs. In the workplace, their feelings must be controlled by the organization. (a theoretical individual found in economic models, who acts entirely for reasons of self-interest without any concern for others. As a consumerhe always looks for the product that gives most satisfaction, as aproducer for the product that gives most profit.)

*Social man - people are motivated by their relationships with others and without this they do not exist. The need to belong to social groups and teams is critical.

*Self actualising man - people are self motivated and self controlled. Given the appropriate opportunities and resources they will apply their talents to achieve mutual goals.

*Complex man - people are variable in what motivates them. Their self motivation changes from time to time, and through time, and from situation to situation.  (that man has a hierarchy of needs.)

*The motivated man – Individual workers have two different categories of needs that are independent of each other but affect human behavior in different ways.

*The Three-Tiered Satisfied Man – A combination of Maslow and Herzberg’s motivation and Alderfers.

*The achiever – People woth hogh need to achieve, do achieve more than those with low need and with no need at all.

*The Expectant Man – A theory where the workers perceived competence to do a job well and the equitable reward he considers fair and just.

*The Managed Man – manager’s assumption about people and their consequent operationalized defines his style of managing. This is labeled by Theory X (the manager assumes that a typical person dislikes work and will avoud if he can – has been associated with closed autocratic style) and Theory Y (the manager assumes that a typical person, work is as natural as paly or rest; has been associated with open and participative management style) of Mc Gregor.

*The learning – Reinforced Man – man learns from his environment and greater control of this environment improves his development.

*Psychological man - people are a complex, evolving, maturing, organism with an ego ideal to strive for. Everything they experience, including their work and its environment, is part of their identity.

Maslow theory of motivation:

Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1990), an American psychologist. He pointed out that motivation was NOT something done TO people by others but fundamentally came from people's INNER NEEDS. In striving to satisfy these needs, people were motivated to take action and achieve.

Maslow suggested that there were five common needs that operated as a hierarchy. That is, only when the most fundamental need was satisfied would the next need act as a motivator, as follows:

* Maslow suggests that people will be moved firstly to satisfy theirsecurity (physiological) needs (e.g. needs for food, rest, exercise, air)

* once those needs are satisfied, people would then seek to satisfy theirsafety needs (e.g. shelter, protection from danger and threats)

* having satisfied that need, people would seek to satisfy their social needs (e.g. to belong to a tribe or group or team, to associate and relate with others, to be accepted)

* once these needs were satisfied, people would seek to satisfy theirstatus needs (e.g. self esteem, recognition by others, pride, dignity)

* and, finally, people would seek to satisfy their self actualisation needs(e.g. self respect, self confidence, autonomy of achievement, realisation of potential).

An alternative interpretation of this one of the motivation theories is that any of these needs may become frustrated and rise to the top of the hierarchy.

Gandhi, for example, threatened his security needs (by going on hunger strike) to satisfy his self actualisation needs (to achieve independence for India).

Transactional Analysis

Transactional Analysis

In the 1960's a man named Eric Berne came up with a theory about communications called transactional analysis or TA for short. In his theory Berne called communications "transactions". This theory was further described in a book called "I'm OK You're OK." by Thomas Harris. In his book Harris elaborated on Berne using a model called "Parent, Adult, Child" communications. Parent, adult and child do not have their usual meanings in this context. A basic understanding of T A can help us evaluate our communications and improve communications by being better able to deliver adult communications or "I" messages which is a type of appropriate and assertive communications.

A very simple explanation of TA follows.

Berne's theory of TA as refined by Harris suggested that communications can be divided into three basic types.

1. The Child Ego State. This the basic way all children enter the world. Within this state are three dimensions.
          1. The free child who is fun loving, inquisitive and wanting to be liked.
          2. The rebellious child 
          3. The manipulative child

2. The Parent Ego State. This is based on our childish understanding of parental rules and understandings. This state has two parts.
          1. The critical parent
          2. The loving and kind parent

3. The Adult Ego State. This is the rational part of us. The Adult Ego State functions by gathering information and making decisions based on fact. This is an objective and unemotional state. It is not a state based on years of life lived or on maturity. Children can function in the Adult Ego State.

The theory is that we have each of these states present within us all the time. Depending on the situation, we operate from one or another of the three positions. The person we are communicating to is also operating from one of the three states. Some communications can work well between states, and some work much less well.

An example might be a person who is acting angry. Most likely anger is from the "Child" state. If you want to address anger, you could begin the response to anger as a "Loving Parent" to quickly establish the communication, and then switch to an "Adult" communication to complete the response.

The ‘3 Rules of Communication’ in TA

1st Rule of Communication

• So long as transactions remain complementary, communication can continue indefinitely.

2^nd Rule of Communication

• When a transaction is crossed, a break in communication results, and one or both individuals will need to shift ego states in order for the communication to be re-established

3^rd Rule of Communication

• The behavioural outcome of an ulterior transaction (one where two messages are sent at the same time; one overt social and one covert psychological) is determined at the psychological level and not at the social level.

This type of transactional analysis (communication study) is an excellent way of dealing with anger and other difficult situations. Sometimes it can be confusing trying to remember who (APC) you are communicating with when dealing with others so a safe rule to follow is when unsure use an adult to adult communication. It is almost never wrong. Even if the other person is acting in their parent state, an adult acting like an adult is tough to argue with.

Sometimes other people's behavior is problematic for us. Depending on the type of communicator we are, (Passive, Assertive, Aggressive) we can choose to continue allowing the problem, manage the problem, or be aggressive towards the other person.

A more assertive or adult to adult strategy is called, giving "I" messages. "I" messages are adult to adult communication. They are not intended as smart comebacks, or witty replies. It is wise to not use "I" messages when someone is in a child state, or when they are emotional or otherwise upset. Adult to adult implies that each party will think logically and act rationally. 

"I" messages are a very powerful communication tool modeled on T A and taken a step further. There is a basic assumption that most communicators will be adults and will want to be adult communicators. Logic and reason are powerful persuaders, and when used result in significant behavior change and communication improvement. Even young children can learn to use "I" messages. Children can then communicate with other children in a calm manner even when they are upset about something.

The basics of "I" messages are simple. An "I" message comes in three parts. Delivering an "I" message is like following a recipe, at least at the start. Practicing the technique over time will result in being able to deliver messages with ease. But as you learn to use "I" messages it is a good idea to adhere to the following recipe!

So, use the force of the "I" message, but use the script too!

Pert - CPM

INTRODUCTION

 

Basically, CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Programme Evaluation Review Technique) are project management techniques, which have been created out of the need of Western industrial and military establishments to plan, schedule and control complex projects.

Brief History of CPM/PERT

 

CPM/PERT or Network Analysis as the technique is sometimes called, developed along two parallel streams, one industrial and the other military.

CPM was the discovery of M.R.Walker of E.I.Du Pont de Nemours & Co. and J.E.Kelly of Remington Rand, circa 1957. The computation was designed for the UNIVAC-I computer. The first test was made in 1958, when CPM was applied to the construction of a new chemical plant. In March 1959, the method was applied to a maintenance shut-down at the Du Pont works in Louisville, Kentucky. Unproductive time was reduced from 125 to 93 hours.

PERT was devised in 1958 for the POLARIS missile program by the Program Evaluation Branch of the Special Projects office of the U.S.Navy, helped by the Lockheed Missile Systems division and the Consultant firm of Booz-Allen & Hamilton. The calculations were so arranged so that they could be carried out on the IBM Naval Ordinance Research Computer (NORC) at Dahlgren, Virginia.

 Planning, Scheduling and Control Advantages

Besides the direct project management benefits, PERT/CPM/PDM provide ancillary ones. The methods are an important communications bridge between the driving strategy and the tactics critical to realizing it, i.e. getting the project done on-time, on-budget. Meeting the PDM/PERT/CPM plan also has come to be used as a benchmark for evaluating individuals and teams.

The methods address the following main concerns:

- ETA (estimated time of arrival, i.e. completion) of the project

- Potential project bottlenecks

- Progress control - the meeting of milestones

- Risks of exceeding the budget

- Risks of missing the deadline

The Basic Network Concept of PERT and CPM

PERT and CPM have six steps in common:

1. Set the start and end dates for the project as a whole.

2. Break up the project into a series of individual tasks, i.e. activities.

3. Develop the sequence for these activities and their relationship to one another. For example, A must be finished before B, C, or D can start; B must be finished before D can start (but not before C), etc.

4. Estimate the time needed for each activity.

5. Estimate the cost for each activity.

6. Compute the longest path through the network, which is known as the critical path.  

The activities that make up the longest path control the project. Therefore focus should be upon them, with adequate resources (the best people, other top quality input) allocated to them. Implicit to PERT/CPM is continuous feedback and the ability to adjust to changes in activity times/budgets to optimize project completion.

A Note on Float

Float or slack gives you your leeway, your margin of error. The two main categories are Free Float and Total Float. The former is the time buffer, or extra available time, when all the preceding activities finish at the earliest possible times, AND all the succeedingactivities happen at the earliest possible times.

The latter, Total Float, is the available time when all the preceding activities finish at the earliest possible times AND all the succeeding activities happen at the latest possible times. Restated as a simple formula:  

Total Float = Latest Start - Earliest Start

When an activity has zero Total Float, Free Float will also be zero. Activities with zero Total Float are on the Critical Path

If the above is all intuitively obvious to you, then you are ready to progress to float variations: Independent, Early Free, Early Interfering, Late Free, and Late Interfering. Note that float can be negative. Float is treated at length in the literature. 

CPM & PERT Weaknesses & Strengths

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) help managers to plan the timing of projects involving sequential activities. PERT/CPM charts identify the time required to complete the activities in a project, and the order of the steps. Each activity is assigned an earliest and latest start time and end time. Activities with no slack time are said to lie along the critical path--the path that must stay on time for the project to remain on schedule.

Expected Completion Time

A strength of PERT/CPM charts is their ability to calculate exactly how long a project will take. PERT/CPM provides managers with a range of time in which the project should be completed, based on the total of all minimum and maximum time limits for all activities. This gives companies a number of advantages, such as the ability to tell customers exactly when their orders will be filled, or to know exactly when to order new supplies. The expected completion time of the project is based on ideal situations, however, and does not take into account the possibility of unforeseen events. The expected completion time of all subsequent activities and the project as a whole can become skewed when things go wrong, which can cause problems if the company has made plans that rely on the timely completion of the project. Another weakness of PERT/CPM is that the technique relies on past data and experience to formulate completion time predictions. New companies may not have any past experience to lean on, putting them at a disadvantage.

Efficiency

Businesses can share PERT/CPM charts among all key employees, letting employees at each station know exactly when they will be required to begin work processes, where the required inputs will come from, where the outputs must go, and when their task must be completed. This can help dispersed employees to operate efficiently by having a common understanding of the expected work flow. When things go wrong, however, the very thing that encouraged efficiency might suddenly cause confusion. When a project is held up due to an unforeseen circumstance, workers at all subsequent stations must delay their own progress while explaining to subsequent stations' employees why outputs are not flowing.

Critical Path

The critical path identified in a PERT/CPM chart shows managers which activities are the most time-critical. This allows managers to focus process improvements on the tasks that are most vital to the timely completion of the project. More slack time can be created by reducing the processing time at critical points in the project, or the project schedule can be tightened up for a quicker turnaround. Managers may place too much emphasis on activities along the critical path, however. A weakness of CPM is that it focuses primarily on the time aspect of activities, neglecting other concerns, such as quality and cost control. Focusing too much attention on the critical path can cause managers not to notice possible production improvements in other activities.

Followership

Introduction

Followership is the act or condition of following a leader; adherence, followership can be defined in several ways. Webster's defines followership as "The capacitiy or willingness to follow a leader." Followership, like leadership, has a much more practical definition. The technical definition does say willingness. However, the will to follow is only one type of followership. You can be someone's follower and not realize it. In truth, everyone follows everyone else, because every action a person takes causes a reaction. For example, if a person tries to attack you, you "follow his lead" and defend yourself. In that scenario, you are the follower and he is the leader because his actions dictate your actions. Thus, everyone is a follower, no matter where they stand.

The Role of a Follower

Leadership and followership differ in one fairly discreet way. Basically, everyone is a follower, but not everyone is a leader. No matter how high up the chain of command one goes, there is always a step higher. The role of a follower, however, in many ways resembles that of a leader. Willingness to tell the truth forms a key ingredient of a "good" follower. Leaders depend on their subordinates for appropriate information. At times this information will prove unwelcome. Followers must have the confidence to speak out. They understand the necessity of the discomfort they may feel while communicating concisely with the leader, and they realise their role in helping the leader make better decisions. Having the fortitude to speak candidly with the leader also comprises a leadership trait. Followers, according to this point of view, must realize that silence is unacceptable.

Becoming an "effective" follower within the leader/follower conceptual universe takes just as much work as becoming a leader. Leaders must allegedly recognize the difference between pessimists, individuals just along for the ride, individuals working just for the paycheck, and participants (followers). Such leaders must reward followership. Organizations that clearly communicate guidelines for subordinates will have more success.

On a more basic level, however, a leader is following no matter where his position is. This comes from following his people, the ones who are following him. First, however, will be the definitions of leadership and followership.

Leadership vs. Followership

All leaders are followers, but not all followers are leaders. A leader is a follower because, not only does he have to follow anybody above him in the hierarchy, but he also follows the same people that he is leading. A good example would be drilling a flight. The leader, in this case a flight sergeant, gives an order and his followers, the flight, do as he says. However, they do not know the command well, so they do not perform is adequately. Because of that lack of knowledge, the flight sergeant will halt the flight and teach them how to do it. Right then, he became a follower because his actions were a direct result to the actions of his followers. Basically, because they did not know how to do the command, they lead the leader into teaching them how to carry out the command. The leader became a follower and the followers became the leaders.

A follower, however, does not have to be a leader. One can follow without leading, especially if he is too afraid to speak when he needs help. The leader cannot know what to do with the follower if the follower does not give him any feedback. Without that feedback, the follower cannot lead, and will remain a follower until he builds the courage to speak.

Thus leadership and followership are two things that can be in operation at the same time for the same person. It is possible to lead and follow at the same time and vice versa. The bridge between the two is communication. With adequate communication, the leader can tell his followers what he wants, and the followers can show him what they need him to do for them. Communication is the key to both leadership and followership.

Effective Followers vs Ineffective Followers

Leadership is not always perfect, there’s a good leadership and a bad leadership it is the reality that affects us greatly. Like leadership, there is also a good follower and a bad follower.

A few researchers have examined the characteristics of followers in an attempt to pinpoint what distinguishes good followers from bad ones. There are four essential qualities that effective followers share. First, effective followers manage themselves well. This quality refers to the ability to determine one’s own goals within a large context and to decide what role to take at any given time. Secondly, effective followers are committed to the organization and to a purpose beyond themselves. Thirdly, effective followers build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact. They strive to reach higher levels of performance and expand themselves. Finally, effective followers are courageous, honest, and credible. This implies and requires independent and critical thinking skills as well as the ability to feel comfortable with others.

One of the most important characteristics of an effective follower may be the willingness to tell the truth. As the quantity of available information has increased exponentially, it has become imperative that followers provide truthful information to their leaders. Good followers speak up even to the point of disagreeing with their leaders. The irony is that the follower who is encouraged and is willing to speak out shows what kind of leadership the company has instituted. Not only is it important for the organization to know what followers think, but effective leaders also need to respect followers who will speak up and share their points of view rather than withhold information. Ineffective followers fail to give honest opinions. They cover up problems and are inclined to become ‘yes men.’ If a company is going down the wrong road, it can get there faster if there are no followers informing the leaders that they took a wrong turn.

Effective followers are cooperative and collaborative, qualities that are essential to all human progress. They think for and manage themselves and carry out duties with assertiveness and energy. Effective followers are well-balanced and responsible human resources who can succeed without strong leadership because they are committed to a purpose, principle, or person outside themselves.

Effective followers are distinguishable from ineffective followers by their enthusiasm and self-reliant participation in the pursuit of organizational goals. Ineffective followers are often critical, cynical, apathetic, and alienated; many will only do what is specifically requested of them. Instead of figuring out what they can do, ineffective followers focus on what can go wrong and what is beyond their control. They tend to doubt themselves and, because they dwell on problems rather than solutions, they most often see their fears materialize. According to one researcher, they become experts at the “the blame game,” blaming everybody around them for problems. These attitudes gradually spread to other departments, and the result is low morale, lack of production, and lost human potential.

Reasons to Follow

There are many reasons to follow. Below are five diverse rationales that followers tend to use when deciding to follow a leader.

Fear of Retribution — “If I do not follow, I may lose my job!” Follow­ing out of fear isn’t as much following as it is using a coercive type of power. The leader in this case only continues being successful (in maintaining followers) as long as the follower sees no other option. Not a tool of effective (and ethical) leaders.

Blind Hope — “We must do something, and I hope this works!” In this situation, the follower is desperate for some solution and is probably only following due to a lack of alternatives. Leaders should watch out for followers like these, as they are likely to flee and follow others who give them more hope.

Faith in Leader — “What a great person. If anyone knows the answer, they do!” Here, the follower is blind to the solution but follows because they have put faith in the leader. Leaders should also be wary of these individuals, as they believe that by some magic or genius, the leader will provide the answer to the follower’s needs. Disappointment is in­evitable, and no leader is perfect.

Intellectual Agreement — “What a good idea, that certainly makes sense!” Logic guides this rationale, and the follower understands the logic of the argument the leader is putting forward. This type of follow­ership is common for educated individuals who need to comprehend why things happen.

Buying the Vision — “What a brilliant idea, I don’t care who thought of it!” When followers buy a vision, they are emotionally identifying with a view of the future that appeals to them in some way. They are not just following a leader or logic; they are focused on the idea of moving toward the shared goals of a group or organization. This is a very useful rationale for leaders to work toward, but only if it can be sustained over a period of time.

All leaders may experience these rationales by different individuals and at different times during their period of leadership. The goal is to work toward the desired rationale for the largest number of followers possible.

References:

 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5335/is_200605/ai_n21392284/

www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/elk1/elk1205/elk1205.pdf

http://www.leadingtoday.org/Onmag/marchapril03/follow32003.html

http://www.adrianwalsh.com.au/followership.htm

http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Followership

http://www.cadetstuff.org/archives/000196.html

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/followership

http://www.answers.com/topic/followership

http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/inner_leadership/lib0039.html

http://knol.google.com/k/followership-is-leadership#

Human Behavior

Introduction

Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.

The behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior is considered as having social behavior, which is more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means of social control.

Factors affecting human behavior

§  Genetics – affects and governs the individual's tendencies toward certain directions.

§  Attitude – the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.

§  Social norms – the influence of social pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative beliefs) to perform or not perform a certain behavior.

§  Perceived behavioral control – the individual's belief concerning how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be.

§  Core faith - The person’s set of beliefs, like religion, philosophy, etc. Provided, sometimes subconsciously, by his or her family, peers, social media, and the society he or she lives in.

Classifications of Human Behavior

•        Conscious - State of awareness of thoughts, feelings, perception and what is going on

in the environment.

•        Unconscious –

Overt - Open to public observation

Covert - Unseen objects such as thoughts, feelings or responses which are not easily seen.

•        Rational - Pertaining to reason, influenced or guided by reason rather than emotion.

•        Irrational - Illogical

•        Voluntary - Intentional

•        Involuntary – Doing something against your will, action made without intent or

carried out despite an attempt to prevent them.

•        Simple – ex. What you see is what you get.

•        Complex - compound complicated behavior.

Theoretical approaches about the factors that cause, maintain, alter behavior, and mental process:

•        PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

-          is based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly influence the development of

late personality traits and psychological problems. It also stresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires and motivations on thoughts and behavior.

•        HUMANISTIC APPROACH

-          emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his/her future, a

large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth & enormous potential for self-fulfillment.

•        BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

-          Studies how organism learn new behavior or modify existing ones, depending on

whether events in their environment reward of punish these behavior.

•        COGNITIVE APPROACH

-          Examines how we process, store, and use information, and how this information

influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember believe and feel.

•        BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

-          Focuses on how genes, hormones & nervous system interact with the environment to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions at coping techniques.

Theories that explain motivation to Human Behavior

HUMAN NEEDS THEORY BY: MASLOW

•        PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

-          Needs such as air, food, water, shelter, rest, sleep, activity and temperature maintenance are crucial for survival.

•        SAFETY AND SECURITY NEEDS

-          The need for safety has both physical and psychological aspects. The person needs to feel safe both in the physical environment and in relationship.

•        LOVE AND BELONGING NEEDS

-          The third level needs includes giving and receiving affection, attaining a place in group, and maintaining the feeling of belonging.

•        SELF-ESTEEM NEEDS

-          The individual needs both self-esteem (ex. Feelings of independence, competence, and self-respect) and esteem from others (ex. Recognition, respect, and appreciation)

•        SELF-ACTUALIZATION

-          When the need for self-esteem is satisfied, the individual strives for self-actualization, the innate need to develop one’s maximum potential and realize one’s abilities and qualities.

•        PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (Sigmund Freud)

-          This theory explained that human behavior is motivated by an inner force called the human mind. This theory was introduced by SIGMUND FREUD.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939) was an Austrian physician who worked as an neurologist. Early in his career, he used hypnosis to treat people with physical and emotional problem. From his work with these patients, he began to conceptualize a theory of human behavior.

•        Freud theorized that people have two (2) basic instincts – SEXUAL and AGGRESSION. These two (2) basic instincts are not always socially acceptable. When people do not exhibit behavior that is not acceptable, do they often experience punishment, guilt and anxiety.

•        Freud’s theory describes a conflict between a person’s instinctual needs for gratification

and the demands of society for socialization. For Freud, a person’s core tendency is to

maximize instinctual gratification while minimizing punishment and guilt.

–  Addresses the relationship among inner experience, behavior, social roles & functioning. This theory proposes that conflicts among unconscious motivating factors affect behavior.

LEVEL OF AWARENESS

•        CONSCIOUS – aware of here and now, in contact with reality. It functions only when the person is awake.

•        PRECONSCIOUS / SUBCONSCIOUS – Contains the partially forgotten memories that can be recalled at will. Preconscious serves as the “watchman” by preventing unacceptable & anxiety producing memories from reaching the conscious awareness.

•        UNCONSCIOUS – The largest part of the personality that is often compared to the hidden iceberg under the water that contains memory that is forgotten & cannot be brought back to consciousness at will.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN AN ORGANIZATION

Human behavior in an organization determines the quality of work, progress and success of the organization. No machine and no computer can work by itself. No product is developed and manufactured by itself. It's the workforce or rather the human resources of an organization who develop ideas, create new products and services and then deliver them to the markets. Thus, it is important for the management of an organization to analyze the behavior of its entire work force. Human performance consulting is in vogue today, thanks to the greater emphasis on the psychology of the people behind the desk.

Every organization differs from the other with respect to its policies, work environment, recruitment process, job evaluation and culture. The most natural human tendency is to react positively and with great intensity where they are compensated well, encouraged well and get additional perks and holidays. In no way is it being suggested that an organization should overpay its staff. However, it must be kept in mind that the organization must treat its work force with immense dignity and respect and provide sufficient compensation. Even make the cleaning staff in your organization feel special and encourage them to do their task in the best possible way! The work force must be treated as an asset, not a liability, and once this is done you will notice remarkable change in the collective human behavior.

The external personal environment plays a major role in his/her behavior and attitude. We are social animals with unique aspirations, hopes, and insecurities. Only those who enjoy their work can have a healthy balance between personal and professional life. Those who don't enjoy their work will most likely not be satisfied with the work nor be content in their personal life due to the imbalance that exists.

One important way to analyze human behavior is to study the relationship effectiveness. How effectively your staff communicates and relates to each other can tell you how much they care for their work and the people around them. Without proper training the office dynamic can become imbalanced just like any natural system.

It is not likely for an accountant or a biologist to sit and study human behavior effectively. You must have trained experts who understand the unique challenges the workplace brings. Not everybody is gifted with the skill to foresee a person's behavior beforehand.

Conclusion

It is really important to know human behavior (the basics of it, the history of it, and why do we study human behavior) Because it helps you understand and appreciate people more. It allows you to know what drives people, and that they not always mean to hurt others but that's just the way they are. It helps you think of people in more positive ways.

This in all aspects of life, including in the work setting.

It will allow you to understand better the motives behind the actions of people, your closest relatives, and others, you parents and your kids. Just a little example: you encounter a person, and that person seems to be sad. You assume that it's something about you and you develop a negative thougt about that person.

However, when you understand how different people feel and act in different ways, you might understand that it's nothing about you; it's just the way the person behaves for whatever reason and possibly because of his/her own issues.

There are people reacting on emotional levels, while others would keep restrained and not give way to their emotions. Some people may appear as cold and indifferent. If you've ever thought this way about your spouse, once you learn about human behavior, you may change your attitude in this respect. You may come to understand that the other person possibly feels very much about you but is just not the type to show his/her emotions openly.

So understanding human behavior helps us understand better other people and ourselves. It helps us have a better life, and appreciate more the world around us.

  

References:

http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20061110141807AAD3Xhc

http://www.212articles.com/articles/73307/1/Human-Behavior-In-Organization/Page1.html

http://www.tlcsem.com/bbehavior.htm

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadhb.html

http://www.bukisa.com/articles/214918_leadership-human-behavior

http://www.leadershipdevelopmenttraininghowto.com/behavior.htm

http://www.7lawsofattraction.net/human-behavior-leadership.html

http://gratewire.com/topic/leadership-human-behavior-this-is-a-topic-i-think-we-need-to-explore

http://www.tpub.com/content/advancement/14504/css/14504_16.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior